February 22, 2005
Concordia University, Montreal
Recent Research
and Background
Reading
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Providing Critical Supports for Successful Learning
F. Governance and Leadership
Re-Thinking Governance
The existing overlap of governance structures and models has resulted in large disparities in the
quality of schooling experienced by Aboriginal students. While previously discussed in some detail,
it bears repeating that a political solution is needed to resolve the jurisdictional conflicts impacting
Aboriginal people whose education is currently a responsibility of the federal government. As
previously noted, for the 60% of Aboriginal communities with fewer than 500 residents, training
and equipping people to serve as local school governing authorities presents a formidable challenge,
as does creating an educational infrastructure capable of providing needed specialist services and
support. The recommendations of Aboriginal groups and Royal Commissions that legislation be
amended to allow for the formation of Aboriginal boards of education similar to those in existence
for Francophone students hold promise of addressing some of the current problems in governance
and infrastructure and increasing capacity in small band-operated schools. Also, emerging from
our study, the hybrid model which unites local band authority with school district services, articulated
through unique partnership agreements based on the strengths and resources of each party seems
to be an effective governance framework.
Governance
Each of the ten schools in this study exists within a system of governance and leadership that
meets the needs of its particular situation. Governance falls into two broad categories; schools
operated by provincial or territorial authorities and schools under Aboriginal governing authorities.
While the school governance structures are diverse, they are all influenced by the educational
policies of the province or territory in which they are located since teachers must be provincially
certified, and schools must teach the provincial curriculum.[1]
Within these categories, many of the schools fall along a continuum between provincial and
Aboriginal control that might be described as a blended governance structure. While a strong
sense of community ownership was evident in all schools, the degree of community involvement
and authority varied. As band-operated schools, Atikameg, Chalo, Peguis, Reindeer Lake, and
Southeast Education Centre have boards or education committees that can set policy and direct
operations. The remaining schools, Alert Bay, Elijah Smith, Gift Lake and Merritt, fall within a
range that varies from an advisory capacity through education committees, to the ability to be
informed, and perhaps heard, through a consultative process. Princess Alexandra is unique in
that its consensus model empowers its community to make management and operational decisions,
while policies are set by the Saskatoon School District. The distinctive governance structures of
the following schools are particularly interesting, and worth noting.
Atikameg School's governing structure is a 'totally unique" partnership between the Atikameg
Director of Education, Atikameg Education Committee, and Northland School Division. In this
joint governance model, educational policies are set by the band and the division hires the principal
and teachers under a fee-for service agreement and provides additional instructional support
services.
Chalo School is operated by a five-member appointed school board under the authority of the
Fort Nelson First Nation Chief and Council. School board members are of long tenure and are
parents or grandparents of children in the school. Decisions are made after considering staff
input; a mix of "democracy and dictatorship". School decisions are increasingly being driven by
performance data and research, and buy-in is sought from all parties, as in the decision to use a
new reading program where the entire staff including teaching assistants, custodians, and bus
drivers visited a school using the program before it was adopted.
Elijah Smith Elementary School is governed by the Yukon Department of Education. There is an
elected school council with representation guaranteed for First Nations parents. A leadership
team provides strong vision and direction to the school and there is an excellent working
relationship between the principals and the elected council.
Peguis Central School has a mature governance structure rivalling that of many school districts, as
might be expected since the Peguis Band is one of the largest in Canada with one of the earliest
band-operated school systems. An appointed school board of long tenure operates under the
authority of Chief and Council. The board sets policy, and a superintendent oversees education,
basing decisions on long-term strategic plans developed by the board and superintendent.
Princess Alexandra Community School is governed by the Saskatoon Public School Board, which
has decentralized responsibilities such as hiring and managing the budget to the school. This
school is highly autonomous and a unique consensus model of decision-making is employed, with
power shared by the staff, students and parents, all of whom have the right to veto an idea.
Reindeer Lake School is governed by a seven-member elected education committee operating
under the authority of the Peter Ballentyne Cree Nation Band Chief and Council. The principal
reports to a Director of Education and to the education committee who are the main points of
contact between the school and the community. Policy is set by the band council and the education
committee periodically meets with teachers, parents, and the general public to address educational
concerns and works in partnership with the principal to operate the school.
Southeast Education Centre operates as a private school, owned by the Southeast Tribal Council.
The school is governed by a board of directors, with one director representing each member
nation of the Council. The directors are well-qualified, with most having educational credentials.
The school is administered by a leadership team consisting of the principal and lodge (residence)
director who report to the board of directors. Parents play a very minor and indirect role in decisionmaking.
Let us now consider the advantages and disadvantages of the three governance models in evidence:
a) independent band operation, b) provincial school district operation, and c) a blended or hybrid
operational model.
The fully independent band-operated model provides Aboriginal communities with the greatest
control of their educational systems. Chiefs and councils, working through their school boards or
education committees, can develop and integrate the delivery of educational services from preschool
to post-secondary levels. Education can be included as part of an overall strategic plan,
responding to present needs while developing capacity to meet the expected future needs of the
community through the provision of a leadership and work force with necessary skills. In addition,
socialization of students within the school system can truly reflect community value systems and
language and develop aspects of character that are important to the traditional culture. One
possible disadvantage is the potential to focus internally to the degree that educational standards
vary significantly from provincially operated schools; particularly, since band-operated schools are
not required to participate in provincial testing and assessment programs and DIAND assessments
of educational quality are rarely conducted[2].
Fully independent control, as exemplified by Peguis Central School, requires a resource base that
most bands lack. The large population and enrolment base of the Peguis Reserve provide both a
leadership pool and the financial resources to operate on the scale of a school district and maintain
an equivalent organizational infrastructure and support services. Smaller communities with fewer
students will have fewer financial resources, will not enjoy the economies of scale that benefit
larger schools, will be unable to develop and sustain an educational infrastructure and support
services, and may be unable to find qualified leaders to serve on their local school governing
bodies. As a result, most band-operated schools in the study either do not provide education
through high school graduation, as in the case of Chalo, or have developed some form of service
arrangement with provincial school districts, similar to Atikameg, that provides them with access
to existing infrastructure and services.
For schools within provincial systems, there are significant differences among provinces; for example
British Columbia provides an additional First Nations education grant of about $950 per pupil
and tracks Aboriginal student progress. Higher levels of educational attainment have been
documented in western Canada for off-reserve Aboriginal students compared to those living onreserve.
3 While the percent of students with less than high school graduation decreased in both
groups between 1996 and 2001, the rate of decrease for off-reserve Aboriginals was twice as high.
It is impossible to isolate all the possible factors causing this disparity. The data also suggest that
student attainment is better in provinces that encourage results-based practices, conduct assessments
of basic skills in elementary grades, and require provincial examinations in specified high school
subjects.[4] Another possibility, supported by the research literature, is that Aboriginal parents in
urban environments may themselves be better educated, may place a higher value on education
and be more involved in their children's educational experiences.
Governance partnerships and power sharing seem to benefit both band and provincially operated
schools. Through its governance partnerships and service agreements Atikameg school has gained
access to the infrastructure and support services of Northland School Division while maintaining
the level of local control over policies and budget they desire. Likewise, as provincially operated
schools, Alert Bay and Merritt have developed mutually beneficial partnerships with local Aboriginal
communities. The schools receive additional funding, student support personnel, and language
and cultural specialists, while the communities enjoy more input and control into their children's
education. The joint governance model presents a practical solution to present inequities among
and capacity challenges faced by many band-operated schools and the seeming absence of
accountability for results.
Leadership
Governance and leadership are closely interrelated, and both must be effective for schools to be
successful. Perhaps this link is closer in Aboriginal communities, where the members of band
councils, education committees, or boards exercise a blend of governance and leadership functions.
It is important to note that Aboriginal concepts of leadership differ from historic Euro-Canadian
ideas of hierarchical or positional authority in several ways.[5] Aboriginal leaders derived their
authority from their own characters and their ability to persuade. They were expected to lead by
example, and when speaking, to express the thoughts of their people. Based on persuasion,
leadership was seen as a skill employed to meet a specific need rather than general authority to
command others. Further, even when leadership was needed, people were under no compulsion
to follow; they could freely choose to withdraw.[6]
Modern studies in effective leadership practices in a knowledge-based society increasingly validate
the traditional Aboriginal concept of leadership. In its simplest terms, leadership involves persuading
others to set aside their individual concerns and to pursue a common goal that is important for
the welfare of a group.7 A central component of leadership is the element of free choice -- followers
choose to submit to the authority of leaders, not through compulsion, but because they are
persuaded that it is in their own best interests to do so.
Considering that leaders must motivate their followers, it is important to consider that every
researcher into human motivation uses the concept of basic human wants and needs. Abraham
Maslow distinguished between "growth or being needs" and the basic requirements for survival
that he called "deficiency needs". An extremely important concept for leadership is that there is
an hierarchical scale of needs and people cannot be engaged on the level of growth or being
needs until their deficiency (survival level) needs have been satisfied.[8]
As previously noted, there is a wide variance in the governance structures and responsibilities of
the schools in this study. This range also seems to apply to the school leadership functions exercised
by members of the elected and appointed boards and education committees. While not addressed
in the scope of this study, it seems likely that higher levels of educational leadership are more
prevalent in communities where deficiency or survival level needs have been successfully addressed
for most residents.
Within the schools themselves, "situational leadership" is much in evidence, possibly in response
to the receptiveness and ability of the followers. Principals and leadership teams in the study
schools showed leadership styles ranging from authoritative to consultative. A directive approach
was evident in schools such as Atikameg and Reindeer Lake, which had less experienced staffs and
high teacher turnover. In these schools, while opinions might be sought, most decisions seemed
to be made by the principals. Schools with more experienced and long-tenured staff, such as Alert
Bay and Chalo, showed a greater degree of consultation and staff input in their decision-making
processes. Larger schools such as Merritt Secondary and Peguis Central evidenced patterns of
delegated authority with leadership empowerment flowing through the more formal structures of
divisions and departments and their heads.
Kouzes and Posner's research on exemplary leadership identified five key practices. Such leaders;
challenge the process, inspire a shared vision, enable others to act, model the way, and encourage
the heart.[9] From the case studies, it is clear that the school leaders employ these practices.
Challenges
to the process are seen in Merritt and Alert Bay's participation in the Network of Performance
Based Schools and Princess Alexandra's consensus model. Interviews with principals and staff
members show a common vision people in these schools are clear about their mission and
priorities. Ideas on improving performance are welcomed, and teachers feel that they can change
things that don't seem to be working. These leaders model the relationships they expect from
their staff and students, and are working to develop what one district principal described as a
"culture of celebration", a school culture that encourages by celebrating "small wins" along the
way towards a larger objective.
It is interesting to note that seven out of the ten schools in this study employ females in leadership
positions; five schools are led by female principals with male vice principals in two of these schools,
and that two others have male/female leadership teams. Given that gender based research has
documented significant differences in information processing and relational understanding
between the sexes, further research on gender based differences in leadership styles might be
informative. The teams observed in the schools of this study seem to have developed a balanced
and effective approach to educational leadership.
1. DIAND educational funding policy requires band-operated schools to employ certified teachers and teach the provincial
curriculum.
2. See report of the Auditor General, 2000
3. Brunnen, 2004, See Figure 1, p.8, also Richards & Vining, April 2002, pp.5, 6.
4. See Figures 1.3 to 1.6, Chapter 1 which show provincial differences in Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal educational
attainment. Provinces that assess performance and publish the results show the best gains and/or attainments.
5. Modern understandings of leadership also include transactional, situational, and transformational leadership models,
with the last two being most similar to traditional Aboriginal practices of leadership.
6. Ross, (1996). p.69,70. Derived from Basil Johnston's book Ojibway Heritage.
7. Hogan, R., Cumphy, G.J., & Hogan, J. (June, 1994). "What we know about leadership". American Psychologist. The
American Psychologist Association, Vol. 49 No. 6, p.493.
8. Vernon J. Northby & Calvin S. Hall (1974). A Guide to Psychologists and Their Concepts. San Francisco: W.H. Freemen & Company. p.117,118.
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